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| Devanagari -
Wikipedia |
|
|
|
| From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
|
| Jump to
navigationJump to search |
|
| Devanagari |
|
| देवनागरी |
|
| Devanagari script (vowels top, consonants
bottom) in Chandas font[better source needed] |
|
|
|
| Script type |
Abugida |
|
| Time period |
Early form: 1st
century CE[1] Modern form: 7th century CE to present[2][3] |
|
| Direction |
left-to-right |
|
| Region |
India 120+
languages use Devanagari Script |
|
| Fiji as script for Fiji
Hindi |
|
| South Africa as protected language (script)[4] |
|
| Nepal |
|
| Languages |
Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhili, Bhojpuri, Bodo, Braj Bhasha, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri, Gujarati, Garhwali Haryanvi, Hindi, Hindustani, Kashmiri, Konkani, Kumaoni Magahi, Maithili, Marathi, Marwari, Mundari, Newari, Nepali, Pāḷi, Pahari, Prakrit, Rajasthani, Sadri, Sanskrit, Santali, Saraiki, Sherpa and Sindhi, Surjapuri, and many more |
|
| Related scripts |
|
| Parent systems |
Proto-Sinaitic[a] |
|
| ·
Phoenician alphabet |
|
| o Aramaic
alphabet[5][6] |
|
| § Brāhmī |
|
| § Gupta |
|
| § Siddhaṃ[7][8] |
|
| § Nāgarī |
|
| § Devanagari |
|
| Sister systems |
Nandinagari |
|
| Kaithi |
|
| Gujarati |
|
| Moḍī |
|
| ISO 15924 |
|
| ISO 15924 |
Deva, 315 , Devanagari
(Nagari) |
|
| Unicode |
|
| Unicode alias |
Devanagari |
|
| Unicode range |
U+0900–U+097F Devanagari, |
|
| U+A8E0–U+A8FF Devanagari Extended, |
|
| U+1CD0–U+1CFF Vedic Extensions |
|
| [a] The
Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon. |
|
| This
article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction
between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets
and transcription delimiters. |
|
|
|
| Devanāgarī |
|
|
|
| ·
Abugida |
|
| ·
Brahmic scripts |
|
| ·
Inherent vowel |
|
| show |
|
| Languages |
|
| show |
|
| Transliteration |
|
| show |
|
| Vowels and syllabic consonants |
|
| show |
|
| Consonants |
|
| show |
|
| Diacritics, punctuation, symbols |
|
| show |
|
| Numerals |
|
| ·
v |
|
| ·
t |
|
| · e |
|
|
|
| Brahmic scripts |
|
| The Brahmic script and its descendants |
|
| show |
|
| Northern Brahmic |
|
| show |
|
| Southern Brahmic |
|
| · v |
|
| ·
t |
|
| · e |
|
| Devanagari (/ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəri/ DAY-və-NAH-gər-ee; देवनागरी, IAST: Devanāgarī, Sanskrit pronunciation: [d̪eːʋɐˈn̪ɑːɡɐɾiː]), also called Nagari (Nāgarī, नागरी),[9] is a left-to-right abugida (alphasyllabary),[10] based on the ancient Brāhmī script,[1] used in
the Indian subcontinent. It was developed in ancient India from the 1st to the 4th
century CE[1] and was in regular use by the 7th century CE.[9][11] The
Devanagari script, composed of 47 primary characters including 14 vowels and
33 consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted
writing system in the world,[12] being used
for over 120 languages.[13] |
|
| The orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the
language.[13] Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept
of letter case.[14] It is
written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded
shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line,
known as a shirorekhā, that runs along the top of full letters.[10] In a cursory
look, the Devanagari script appears different from other Indic scripts such as Bengali-Assamese, Odia or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination
reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.[10] |
|
| Among the languages using it – as either
their only script or one of their scripts – are Marathi, Pāḷi, Sanskrit (the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two
additional consonantal characters),[15] Hindi,[16] Nepali, Sherpa, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha,[17] Chhattisgarhi, Haryanvi, Magahi, Nagpuri, Rajasthani, Bhili, Dogri, Maithili, Kashmiri, Konkani, Sindhi, Bodo, Nepalbhasa, Mundari and Santali.[13] The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly
found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South
India,[18][19] and it is distantly related to a number of southeast
Asian scripts.[13] |
|
|
|
| Contents |
|
| ·
1Etymology |
|
| ·
2History |
|
| o
2.1East Asia |
|
| ·
3Letters |
|
| o
3.1Vowels |
|
| o
3.2Consonants |
|
| o 3.3Vowel diacritics |
|
| o 3.4Conjunct consonants |
|
| o
3.5Accent marks |
|
| o
3.6Punctuation |
|
| o
3.7Old forms |
|
| o
3.8Numerals |
|
| o
3.9Fonts |
|
| ·
4Transliteration |
|
| o 4.1Hunterian system |
|
| o
4.2ISO 15919 |
|
| o
4.3IAST |
|
| o
4.4Harvard-Kyoto |
|
| o
4.5ITRANS |
|
| §
4.5.1Velthuis |
|
| o 4.6ALA-LC Romanisation |
|
| o
4.7WX |
|
| ·
5Encodings |
|
| o
5.1ISCII |
|
| o
5.2Unicode |
|
| ·
6Devanagari keyboard layouts |
|
| o 6.1InScript layout |
|
| o
6.2Typewriter |
|
| o
6.3Phonetic |
|
| ·
7See also |
|
| ·
8References |
|
| o
8.1Citations |
|
| o 8.2General sources |
|
| o 8.3Census and catalogues of manuscripts
in Devanagari |
|
| · 9External
links |
|
| Etymology[edit] |
|
| Devanagari is a
compound of "deva" देव and
"nāgarī" नागरी.[9] Deva means "heavenly or
divine" and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism.[20] Nagari comes from नगरम्
(nagaram), which
means abode or city. Hence, Devanagari denotes from the abode
of divinity or deities. |
|
| Nāgarī is
the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara "relating or belonging to a town or city,
urban". It is a phrasing with lipi ("script") as nāgarī
lipi "script relating to a city",
or "spoken in city".[21] |
|
| Devanagari
Script known as 'Script of the divine city' came from devanagara or the 'city
of the god'. And hence interpret it as "[script] of the city of the
gods".[22] |
|
| The use of the name devanāgarī emerged
from the older term nāgarī.[23] According to Fischer, Nagari emerged in the northwest
Indian subcontinent around 633 CE, was fully developed by the
11th-century, and was one of the major scripts used for the Sanskrit
literature.[23] |
|
| History[edit] |
|
| Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts
of India, Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia.[24][23] It is a
descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brahmi
script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn
gave birth to Devanagari and Nandinagari. Devanagari has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to
write Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, Hindi dialects, Konkani, and Nepali. |
|
| Some of the earliest epigraphical evidence
attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nagari script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE
inscriptions discovered in Gujarat.[1] Variants of script called Nāgarī, recognisably
close to Devanagari, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in
Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanagari was in use by
about 1000 CE.[11][25] Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of
the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of
Nagari scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in
both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script; while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal
Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanagari
scripts.[26] |
|
| The Nagari script was in regular use by the
7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first
millennium.[9][11] The
use of Sanskrit in Nagari script in medieval India is attested by numerous
pillar and cave temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh,[27] and an
inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at
the British Museum.[28] The script's
proto- and related versions have been discovered in ancient relics outside of
India, such as in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Indonesia; while in East Asia, Siddha
Matrika script considered as the closest
precursor to Nagari was in use by Buddhists.[15][29] Nagari has been the primus
inter pares of the Indic scripts.[15] It has long
been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and
transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide
variety of local scripts (such as Modi, Kaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses. |
|
| Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of
Devanagari is visible in the Kutila
inscription of Bareilly dated to Vikram Samvat 1049 (i.e.
992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group
letters belonging to a word.[2] One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the
early post-Maurya period
consists of 1,413 Nagari pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date
of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th
century CE.[30] |
|
| Evolution
from Brahmi to Gupta, and to Devanagari[31] |
|
| |
k- |
kh- |
g- |
gh- |
ṅ- |
c- |
ch- |
j- |
jh- |
ñ- |
ṭ- |
ṭh- |
ḍ- |
ḍh- |
ṇ- |
t- |
th- |
d- |
dh- |
n- |
p- |
ph- |
b- |
bh- |
m- |
y- |
r- |
l- |
v- |
ś- |
ṣ- |
s- |
h- |
|
| Brahmi |
𑀓 |
𑀔 |
𑀕 |
𑀖 |
𑀗 |
𑀘 |
𑀙 |
𑀚 |
𑀛 |
𑀜 |
𑀝 |
𑀞 |
𑀟 |
𑀠 |
𑀡 |
𑀢 |
𑀣 |
𑀤 |
𑀥 |
𑀦 |
𑀧 |
𑀨 |
𑀩 |
𑀪 |
𑀫 |
𑀬 |
𑀭 |
𑀮 |
𑀯 |
𑀰 |
𑀱 |
𑀲 |
𑀳 |
|
| Gupta |
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| Devanagari |
क |
ख |
ग |
घ |
ङ |
च |
छ |
ज |
झ |
ञ |
ट |
ठ |
ड |
ढ |
ण |
त |
थ |
द |
ध |
न |
प |
फ |
ब |
भ |
म |
य |
र |
ल |
व |
श |
ष |
स |
ह |
|
| East Asia[edit] |
|
|
|
| Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya
Dhāraṇī Sūtra in Siddham on palm-leaf in 609 CE. Hōryū-ji, Japan. The
last line is a complete Sanskrit syllabary in Siddhaṃ script. |
|
| Under the rule of Songtsen
Gampo of the Tibetan
Empire, Thonmi
Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage
negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for
the Tibetan language. Thus he invented the Tibetan
script, based on the Nagari used in Kashmir. He
added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[32] |
|
| Other scripts closely related to Nagari
such as Siddham Matrka were in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan and other
parts of East Asia by between 7th to 10th century.[33][34] |
|
| Most of the southeast Asian scripts have
roots in the Dravidian scripts, except for a few found in south-central
regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia that resemble Devanagari
or its prototype. The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanagari in many
respects though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest
inscriptions in the Devanagari-like scripts are from around the 10th-century,
with many more between 11th and 14th century.[35][36] Some of the old-Devanagari inscriptions are found in
Hindu temples of Java, such as the Prambanan temple.[37] The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java,
dated to the 8th-century, are also in the Nagari script of North India.
According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these
may be related to the 9th-century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva
(Bengal) which is also in early Devanagari script.[38] The term Kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from Kavya (poetry). According to
anthropologists and Asian Studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok
Yian, the 8th-century version of early Nagari or Devanagari script was
adopted in Java, Bali (Indonesia), and Khmer (Cambodia) around 8th or 9th-century, as evidenced by the many
inscriptions of this period.[39] |
| Letters[edit] |
|
| The letter order of Devanagari, like nearly all Brahmic scripts, is based
on phonetic principles
that consider both the manner and place of
articulation of the consonants and vowels
they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamālā "garland of letters".[40] The format
of Devanagari for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with
minor variations or additions, to other languages.[41] |
|
| Vowels[edit] |
|
| The
vowels and their arrangement are:[42] |
|
| |
|
Independent form |
IAST |
ISO |
As diacritic
with प (Barakhadi) |
|
Independent form |
IAST |
ISO |
As diacritic
with प (Barakhadi) |
|
| kaṇṭhya |
अ |
a |
प |
आ |
ā |
पा |
|
| (Guttural) |
|
| tālavya |
इ |
i |
पि |
ई |
ī |
पी |
|
| (Palatal) |
|
| oṣṭhya |
उ |
u |
पु |
ऊ |
ū |
पू |
|
| (Labial) |
|
| mūrdhanya |
ऋ |
ṛ |
r̥ |
पृ |
ॠ4 |
ṝ |
r̥̄ |
पॄ |
|
| (Retroflex) |
|
| dantya |
ऌ4 |
ḷ |
l̥ |
पॢ |
ॡ4, 5 |
ḹ |
l̥̄ |
पॣ |
|
| (Dental) |
|
| kaṇṭhatālavya |
ए |
e |
ē |
पे |
ऐ |
ai |
पै |
|
| (Palatoguttural) |
|
| kaṇṭhoṣṭhya |
ओ |
o |
ō |
पो |
औ |
au |
पौ |
|
| (Labioguttural) |
|
| |
अं1 |
aṃ |
aṁ |
पं |
अः1 |
aḥ |
पः |
|
| |
ॲ / ऍ 7 |
|
ê |
पॅ |
ऑ7 |
|
ô |
पॉ |
|
|
|
|
| Examples of Devanagari manuscripts created
between 13th- and 19th-centuries |
|
| 1. Arranged
with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra ं ṃ and the final fricative visarga ः ḥ (called अं aṃ and अः aḥ). Masica (1991:146) notes of the anusvāra in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to
whether it represents a homorganic nasal
stop [...], a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according
to context". The visarga represents post-vocalic voiceless
glottal fricative [h], in Sanskrit an allophone of s, or less commonly r, usually in word-final
position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath:[43] इः [ihi]. Masica (1991:146) considers
the visarga along
with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña for
the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the
system". |
|
| 2. Another
diacritic is the candrabindu/anunāsika ँ अँ. Salomon (2003:76–77) describes it as a "more emphatic form" of
the anusvāra, "sometimes
[...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan
language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalisation[44] while the anusvār indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant:[45] e.g. हँसी [ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा [ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akṣara has a vowel
diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon")
stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:[46] हूँ [ɦũ] "am",
but हैं [ɦɛ̃] "are". Some writers
and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using
only the dot in all situations.[47] |
|
| 3. The avagraha ऽ अऽ (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for
the elision of
a vowel in sandhi: एकोऽयम् eko'yam ( ← एकस् ekas + अयम् ayam) "this one". An original long vowel lost to
coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्मा sadā'tmā ( ← सदा sadā + आत्मा ātmā) "always, the self".[48] In Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a
vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! āīīī!. In Madhyadeshi Languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili,
etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms [that] end in that inherent vowel",[49] the avagraha is used to mark
the non-elision
of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ baiṭha "sit" versus बइठ baiṭh |
|
| 4. The
syllabic vowels ṝ (ॠ), ḷ, (ऌ) and ḹ (ॡ) are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of
other languages. The sound represented by ṛ has also been lost in the modern languages, and its
pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi)
to [ɾu] (Marathi). |
|
| 5. ḹ is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included
among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of
letters.[41] |
|
| 6. There
are non-regular formations of रु ru and रू rū. |
|
| 7. There
are two more vowels in Marathi as well as Konkani, ॲ and ऑ, that respectively represent [æ], similar to the RP English pronunciation of
<a> in ‘act’,
and [ɒ], similar to the RP pronunciation of ⟨o⟩ in ‘cot’.
These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as in डॉलर dôlar, "dollar".[50] IAST transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919, the transliteration is
ê and ô, respectively. |
|
| Consonants[edit] |
|
| The table below shows the consonant letters
(in combination with inherent vowel a)
and their arrangement. To the right of the Devanagari letter it shows the
Latin script transliteration using International
Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration,[51] and the
phonetic value (IPA)
in Hindi.[52][53] |
|
| Phonetics → |
sparśa |
anunāsika |
antastha |
ūṣman/saṃgharṣī |
|
| (Plosive) |
(Nasal) |
(Approximant) |
(Fricative) |
|
| Voicing → |
aghoṣa |
saghoṣa |
aghoṣa |
saghoṣa |
|
| Aspiration → |
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
alpaprāṇa |
mahāprāṇa |
|
| kaṇṭhya |
क |
ka |
ख |
kha |
ग |
ga |
घ |
gha |
ङ |
ṅa |
|
ह |
ha |
|
| (Guttural) |
[k] |
[kʰ] |
[ɡ] |
[ɡʱ] |
[ŋ] |
[ɦ] |
|
| tālavya |
च |
ca |
छ |
cha |
ज |
ja |
झ |
jha |
ञ |
ña |
य |
ya |
श |
śa |
|
|
| (Palatal) |
[tʃ] |
[tʃʰ] |
[dʒ] |
[dʒʱ] |
[ɲ] |
[j] |
[ʃ] |
|
| mūrdhanya |
ट |
ṭa |
ठ |
ṭha |
ड |
ḍa |
ढ |
ḍha |
ण |
ṇa |
र |
ra |
ष |
ṣa |
|
| (Retroflex) |
[ʈ] |
[ʈʰ] |
[ɖ] |
[ɖʱ] |
[ɳ] |
[r] |
[ʂ] |
|
| dantya |
त |
ta |
थ |
tha |
द |
da |
ध |
dha |
न |
na |
ल |
la |
स |
sa |
|
| (Dental) |
[t̪] |
[t̪ʰ] |
[d̪] |
[d̪ʱ] |
[n] |
[l] |
[s] |
|
| oṣṭhya |
प |
pa |
फ |
pha |
ब |
ba |
भ |
bha |
म |
ma |
व |
va |
|
|
| (Labial) |
[p] |
[pʰ] |
[b] |
[bʱ] |
[m] |
[ʋ] |
|
| ·
Additionally, there is ळ ḷa (IPA: [ɭ] or [ɭ̆]), the
intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced
retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, which is a phoneme in languages such
as Marathi, Konkani, Garhwali, and Rajasthani.[54] |
|
| ·
Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely
been formulated. Masica (1991:146) offers the following, "In any case, according to
some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this
system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was
difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal
developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages,
they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in
recitation). |
|
| o The
most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot (nuqtā) ़. Hindi uses it for the Persian, Arabic and English sounds क़ qa /q/, ख़ xa /x/, ग़ ġa /ɣ/, ज़ za /z/, झ़ zha /ʒ/, and फ़ fa /f/, and for the allophonic developments ड़ ṛa /ɽ/ and ढ़ ṛha /ɽʱ/.[55] (Although ऴ ḻa /ɻ/ could also exist, it is not used in
Hindi.) |
|
| o Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated with a line attached below: ॻ [ɠə], ॼ [ʄə], ॾ [ɗə], ॿ [ɓə]. |
|
| o Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with ह ha: म्ह mha, न्ह nha, ण्ह ṇha, व्ह vha, ल्ह lha, ळ्ह ḷha, र्ह rha. |
|
| o Masica
(1991:147) notes Marwari as using ॸ for ḍa [ɗə] (while ड represents [ɽə]). |
|
| For a list of the 297 (33×9) possible
Sanskrit consonant-(short) vowel syllables see Āryabhaṭa
numeration. |
|
| Vowel
diacritics[edit] |
|
|
|
| Vowel diacritics on क |
|
| Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics.
Vowels in their independent form on the left and in their corresponding
dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k' on the right. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a' is inherent. ISO 15919[56] transliteration is on the top two rows. |
|
| ISO |
a |
ā |
æ |
ɒ |
i |
ī |
u |
ū |
e |
ē |
ai |
o |
ō |
au |
r̥ |
r̥̄ |
l̥ |
l̥̄ |
ṁ |
ḥ |
|
|
| |
a |
ka |
ā |
kā |
æ |
kæ |
ɒ |
kɒ |
i |
ki |
ī |
kī |
u |
ku |
ū |
kū |
e |
ke |
ē |
kē |
ai |
kai |
o |
ko |
ō |
kō |
au |
kau |
r̥ |
kr̥ |
r̥̄ |
kr̥̄ |
l̥ |
kl̥ |
l̥̄ |
kl̥̄ |
ṁ |
kaṁ |
ḥ |
kaḥ |
k |
|
| Devanagari |
अ |
क |
आ |
का |
ॲ |
कॅ |
ऑ |
कॉ |
इ |
कि |
ई |
की |
उ |
कु |
ऊ |
कू |
ऎ |
कॆ |
ए |
के |
ऐ |
कै |
ऒ |
कॊ |
ओ |
को |
औ |
कौ |
ऋ |
कृ |
ॠ |
कॄ |
ऌ |
कॢ |
ॡ |
कॣ |
अं |
कं |
अः |
कः |
क् |
|
| A vowel combines with a consonant in their
diacritic form. For example, the vowel आ (ā) combines with the consonant क् (k)
to form the syllabic letter का (kā), with haland removed and added vowel sign which is indicated
by diacritics.
The vowel अ (a) combines with the
consonant क् (k)
to form क (ka) with haland removed. But, the
diacritic series of क, ख, ग, घ ... (ka, kha, ga, gha) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel अ (a) is inherent. |
|
| Conjunct
consonants[edit] |
|
| Main article: Devanagari conjuncts |
|
| The Jnanesvari is a commentary on the Bhagavad
Gita, dated to 1290 CE. It is in written
in Marathi using
Devanagari script. |
|
| As mentioned, successive consonants lacking
a vowel in between them may physically join together as a conjunct consonant or ligature. When Devanagari is used
for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with
Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant
and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do
so. For example, the native Hindi word karnā is written करना (ka-ra-nā).[57] The government of these clusters ranges from widely to
narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised
for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which
the Unicode used
on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules: |
|
| · 24 out of
the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke
(ख kha, घ gha, ण ṇa etc.).
As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke.
e.g. त + व = त्व tva, ण + ढ = ण्ढ ṇḍha, स + थ = स्थ stha.
In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are
called half forms.[58] श ś(a) appears as a
different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment
preceding व va, न na, च ca, ल la,
and र ra, causing these second members to be shifted down and
reduced in size.
Thus श्व śva, श्न śna, श्च śca श्ल śla,
and श्र śra. |
|
| ·
र r(a) as a first member takes
the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā-diacritic. e.g. र्व rva, र्वा rvā, र्स्प rspa, र्स्पा rspā. As a final member with ट ṭa, ठ ṭha, ड ḍa, ढ ḍha, ड़ ṛa, छ cha, it is two lines together below the character pointed
downwards. Thus ट्र ṭra, ठ्र ṭhra, ड्र ḍra, ढ्र ḍhra, ड़्र ṛra, छ्र chra. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke
extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र. त ta is
shifted up to make the conjunct त्र tra. |
|
| ·
As first members, remaining characters lacking
vertical strokes such as द d(a) and ह h(a) may have their second member, reduced in size and
lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. क k(a), छ ch(a), and फ ph(a) shorten their right
hooks and join them directly to the following member. |
|
| ·
The conjuncts for kṣ and jñ are not clearly derived from the letters making up their
components. The conjunct for kṣ is क्ष (क् + ष) and for jñ it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ). |
|
| Accent marks[edit] |
|
| Main article: Vedic accent |
|
| The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, anudātta is written with
a bar below the line (◌॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (◌॑) while udātta is unmarked. |
|
| Punctuation[edit] |
|
| The end of a sentence or half-verse may be
marked with the "।"
symbol (called a daṇḍa, meaning "bar", or called a pūrṇa virām,
meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked
with a double-daṇḍa, a "॥" symbol. A comma (called an alpa virām, meaning
"short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[59][60] Punctuation
marks of Western origin,
such as the colon, semi-colon, exclamation mark, dash, and question mark are in use in
Devanagari script since at least the 1900s[citation needed], matching their use in European languages.[61] |
|
| Old forms[edit] |
|
| A
few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit
text Shisyalekha composed in the 5th century by
Candragomin. Shisyalekha was written in Devanagari script by a
Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE (above). The manuscript is in the Cambridge
University library.[62] |
|
| A
mid 10th-century college land grant in Devanagari inscription (Sanskrit)
discovered on a buried, damaged stone in north Karnataka. Parts of the
inscription are in Canarese script.[63] |
|
| The
following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts.[64] |
|
| Letter variants |
|
| standard |
ancient |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Numerals[edit] |
|
| See also: Indian
numerals, Brahmi
numerals, and Hindu-Arabic
numeral system |
|
| Devanagari digits |
|
| ० |
१ |
२ |
३ |
४ |
५ |
६ |
७ |
८ |
९ |
|
| 0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
|
| Fonts[edit] |
|
| A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for
Devanagari. These include Akshar,[65] Annapurna,[66] Arial,[67] CDAC-Gist Surekh,[68] CDAC-Gist Yogesh,[69] Chandas,[70] Gargi,[71] Gurumaa,[72] Jaipur,[73] Jana,[74] Kalimati,[75] Kanjirowa,[76] Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,[77] Kokila,[78] Raghu,[79] Sanskrit2003,[80] Santipur OT,[81] Siddhanta, and Thyaka.[82] |
|
| The form of Devanagari fonts vary with function. According
to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:[81] |
|
| Uttara [companion to Chandas] is the best in terms of
ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much
vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface
font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field"
font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era]
typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[83] is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than
most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist
Surekh[68] font
makes for quicker comprehension and reading. |
|
| The Google Fonts project has a number of
Unicode fonts for Devanagari in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif,
display and handwriting categories. |
|
| Transliteration[edit] |
|
| Main
article: Devanagari transliteration |
|
|
|
| Indic scripts share common features, and
along with Devanagari, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to
preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts. |
|
| There are several methods of Romanisation or transliteration from
Devanagari to the Roman script.[84] |
|
| Hunterian
system[edit] |
|
| Main
article: Hunterian transliteration |
|
| The Hunterian
system is the "national system of romanisation in India" and the one officially
adopted by the Government of India.[85][86][87] |
|
| ISO 15919[edit] |
|
| Main article: ISO 15919 |
|
| A standard transliteration convention was
codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the
much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. The
Devanagari-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for
Sanskrit, IAST.[88] |
|
| IAST[edit] |
|
| The International
Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is
the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto
standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic
texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The ISO 15919
standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an
expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanagari.[88] |
|
| The National
Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of all Indic
scripts, is an extension of IAST. |
|
| Harvard-Kyoto[edit] |
|
| Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the
diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of
putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form,
and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration
of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.[89] This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than
IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words. |
|
| ITRANS[edit] |
|
| ITRANS is a
lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into ASCII that is widely used
on Usenet. It is
an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the word devanāgarī is
written "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is
associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting
in Indic scripts.
The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the
Roman letters into Devanagari (or other Indic languages). The latest version
of ITRANS is
version 5.30 released in July, 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was
created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal
computers.[89] |
|
| Velthuis[edit] |
|
| Main article: Velthuis |
|
| The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is
case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised.
This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans
Velthuis for TeX,
loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant. |
|
| ALA-LC
Romanisation[edit] |
|
| ALA-LC[90] romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the
Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in
North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so
there is a table for Hindi,[91] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[92] etc. |
|
| WX[edit] |
|
| Main article: WX notation |
|
| WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for
Indian languages, widely used among the natural
language processing community in India. It
originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The
salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows. |
|
| · Every
consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is
a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view. |
|
| ·
Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated
consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated
consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d,
D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a
reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping. |
|
| Encodings[edit] |
|
| ISCII[edit] |
|
| ISCII is an 8-bit
encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific. |
|
| It has been designed for representing not only
Devanagari but also various other Indic scripts as well as a
Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic
scripts. |
|
| ISCII has largely been superseded by
Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its
Indic language blocks. |
|
| Unicode[edit] |
|
| Main articles: Devanagari
(Unicode block), Devanagari
Extended (Unicode block), and Vedic Extensions (Unicode block) |
|
| The Unicode Standard defines three blocks
for Devanagari: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended
(U+A8E0–U+A8FF), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF). |
|
| Devanagari[1] |
|
| Official
Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) |
|
| |
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
| U+090x |
ऀ |
ँ |
ं |
ः |
ऄ |
अ |
आ |
इ |
ई |
उ |
ऊ |
ऋ |
ऌ |
ऍ |
ऎ |
ए |
|
| U+091x |
ऐ |
ऑ |
ऒ |
ओ |
औ |
क |
ख |
ग |
घ |
ङ |
च |
छ |
ज |
झ |
ञ |
ट |
|
| U+092x |
ठ |
ड |
ढ |
ण |
त |
थ |
द |
ध |
न |
ऩ |
प |
फ |
ब |
भ |
म |
य |
|
| U+093x |
र |
ऱ |
ल |
ळ |
ऴ |
व |
श |
ष |
स |
ह |
ऺ |
ऻ |
़ |
ऽ |
ा |
ि |
|
| U+094x |
ी |
ु |
ू |
ृ |
ॄ |
ॅ |
ॆ |
े |
ै |
ॉ |
ॊ |
ो |
ौ |
् |
ॎ |
ॏ |
|
| U+095x |
ॐ |
॑ |
॒ |
॓ |
॔ |
ॕ |
ॖ |
ॗ |
क़ |
ख़ |
ग़ |
ज़ |
ड़ |
ढ़ |
फ़ |
य़ |
|
| U+096x |
ॠ |
ॡ |
ॢ |
ॣ |
। |
॥ |
० |
१ |
२ |
३ |
४ |
५ |
६ |
७ |
८ |
९ |
|
| U+097x |
॰ |
ॱ |
ॲ |
ॳ |
ॴ |
ॵ |
ॶ |
ॷ |
ॸ |
ॹ |
ॺ |
ॻ |
ॼ |
ॽ |
ॾ |
ॿ |
|
| Notes |
|
| 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 |
|
|
|
| Devanagari Extended[1] |
|
| Official
Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) |
|
| |
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
| U+A8Ex |
꣠ |
꣡ |
꣢ |
꣣ |
꣤ |
꣥ |
꣦ |
꣧ |
꣨ |
꣩ |
꣪ |
꣫ |
꣬ |
꣭ |
꣮ |
꣯ |
|
| U+A8Fx |
꣰ |
꣱ |
ꣲ |
ꣳ |
ꣴ |
ꣵ |
ꣶ |
ꣷ |
꣸ |
꣹ |
꣺ |
ꣻ |
꣼ |
ꣽ |
ꣾ |
ꣿ |
|
| Notes |
|
| 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 |
|
|
|
| Vedic Extensions[1][2] |
|
| Official
Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) |
|
| |
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
| U+1CDx |
᳐ |
᳑ |
᳒ |
᳓ |
᳔ |
᳕ |
᳖ |
᳗ |
᳘ |
᳙ |
᳚ |
᳛ |
᳜ |
᳝ |
᳞ |
᳟ |
|
| U+1CEx |
᳠ |
᳡ |
᳢ |
᳣ |
᳤ |
᳥ |
᳦ |
᳧ |
᳨ |
ᳩ |
ᳪ |
ᳫ |
ᳬ |
᳭ |
ᳮ |
ᳯ |
|
| U+1CFx |
ᳰ |
ᳱ |
ᳲ |
ᳳ |
᳴ |
ᳵ |
ᳶ |
᳷ |
᳸ |
᳹ |
ᳺ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Notes |
|
| 1.^ As of Unicode version 13.0 |
|
| 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points |
|
| Devanagari
keyboard layouts[edit] |
|
| For a list of
Devanagari input tools and fonts, please see Help:Multilingual support
(Indic). |
|
| InScript layout[edit] |
|
| InScript is the
standard keyboard layout
for Devanagari as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in
all modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout (using the Mangal font),
which can be used to input unicode Devanagari characters. InScript is also
available in some touchscreen mobile phones. |
|
|
|
| Devanagari
INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout |
|
| Typewriter[edit] |
|
| This layout was used on manual typewriters
when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward
compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout. |
|
| Phonetic[edit] |
|
|
| Devanagari
Phonetic Keyboard Layout |
|
|
| One can use ULS "अक्षरांतरण" (Transliteration) or "मराठी लिपी" (Inscript) typing options to search or edit Marathi Wikipedia articles
as shown in this video clip; One can click on the 'cc to change the subtitle languages to Marathi, English,
Sanskrit, Konkani, Ahirani languages. |
|
| Such tools work on phonetic
transliteration. The user writes in Roman and the IME automatically converts it into Devanagari. Some popular
phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME. |
|
| The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for
Devanagari: one is much like INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, the other is a phonetic
layout called "Devanagari QWERTY". |
|
| Any one of Unicode fonts input system is
fine for Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi,
Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali Wikipedia. Some people use inscript. Majority uses either Google
phonetic transliteration or input
facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects
Phonetic facility provided initially was java-based later supported by
Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki
projects are supported by Universal
Language Selector (ULS), that offers both
phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: अक्षरांतरण, Hindi: लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी) and InScript keyboard (Marathi: मराठी लिपी). |
|
| The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for
Devanagari, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX
notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The
'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing
method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who
know English well (and the English keyboard) but not familiar with typing in
Devanagari. |
|
| See also[edit] |
|
| · |
|
|
|
|
| · |
|
|
|
|
|
| ·
Languages of India |
|
| · Clip font |
|
| ·
Devanagari transliteration |
|
| ·
Devanagari Braille |
|
| ·
ISCII |
|
| ·
Nagari Pracharini Sabha |
|
| ·
Nepali |
|
| ·
Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages |
|
| ·
Shiksha –
the Vedic study
of sound, focusing on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet |
|
| References[edit] |
|
| Citations[edit] |
|
| 1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency at Google Books, Rudradaman’s
inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, India,
Stanford University Archives, pages 30–45, particularly Devanagari
inscription on Jayadaman's coins pages 33–34 |
|
| 2. ^ Jump up to:a b Isaac Taylor (1883), History
of the Alphabet: Aryan Alphabets, Part 2, Kegan
Paul, Trench & Co, p. 333, ISBN 978-0-7661-5847-4, ... In the Kutila this develops into a short
horizontal bar, which, in the Devanagari, becomes a continuous horizontal
line ... three cardinal inscriptions of this epoch, namely, the Kutila or
Bareli inscription of 992, the Chalukya or Kistna inscription of 945, and a Kawi inscription of
919 ... the Kutila inscription is of great importance in Indian epigraphy,
not only from its precise date, but from its offering a definite early form
of the standard Indian alphabet, the Devanagari ... |
|
| 3. ^ Salomon,
Richard (1998). Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions
in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages. South Asia
research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3. |
|
| 4. ^ http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions%7CReference[permanent dead
link] |
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| 5. ^ Salomon 1996, p. 378. |
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| 6. ^ Salomon,
Richard, On The Origin Of The Early Indian
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Society 115.2 (1995), 271–279, archived
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22 May 2019, retrieved 27 March 2021 |
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| 7. ^ Daniels,
P.T. (January 2008). "Writing systems of major and minor
languages". |
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| 8. ^ Masica,
Colin (1993). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143. |
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| 9. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Kathleen Kuiper
(2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1615301492, page 83 |
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| 10. ^ Jump up to:a b c Danesh Jain; George Cardona
(26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-135-79710-2. Nagari has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes,
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| 11. ^ Jump up to:a b c Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford
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| 12. ^ David Templin. "Devanagari script". omniglot.com.
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| 13. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Devanagari (Nagari), Script Features and Description, SIL International (2013),
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| 14. ^ Akira Nakanishi, Writing systems of the World, ISBN 978-0804816540, page 48 |
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| 15. ^ Jump up to:a b c George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan
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| 16. ^ Hindi, Omniglot Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages |
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| 17. ^ Snell, Rupert.
(1991). The Hindi classical tradition : a Braj
Bhāṣā reader. London: School of Oriental and African
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| 18. ^ George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan
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| 19. ^ Reinhold Grünendahl (2001), South Indian Scripts in
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201–210 |
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| 20. ^ Monier Monier-Williams, A
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| 21. ^ Monier Williams Online Dictionary, nagara, Cologne Sanskrit Digital
Lexicon, Germany |
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| 22. ^ Maurer, Walter H.
(1976). "On the Name
Devanāgarī". Journal of the
American Oriental Society. 96 (1): 101–104. doi:10.2307/599893. ISSN 0003-0279. |
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| 23. ^ Jump up to:a b c Steven Roger Fischer
(2004), A history of writing, Reaktion Books, ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9, (p. 110) "... an early branch of this, as of
the fourth century CE, was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main
daughter. [...] The Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts
(usually through later Devanagari). [...] Beginning around AD 600, Gupta
inspired the important Nagari, Sarada, Tibetan and Pāḷi scripts.
Nagari, of India's northwest, first appeared around AD 633. Once fully
developed in the eleventh century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or "heavenly
Nagari", since it was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit
literature." |
|
| 24. ^ George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan
Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772945, pages 68–69 |
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| 25. ^ Krishna Chandra Sagar (1993), Foreign Influence on
Ancient India, South Asia Books, ISBN 978-8172110284, page 137 |
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| 26. ^ Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0195356663, page 71 |
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| 27. ^ Michael Willis (2001),
Inscriptions from Udayagiri: locating domains of devotion, patronage and
power in the eleventh century, South Asian Studies, 17(1), pages 41–53 |
|
| 28. ^ Brick with Sanskrit
inscription in Nagari script, 1217 CE, found
in Uttar Pradesh, India (British Museum) |
|
| 29. ^ Wayan Ardika (2009), Form, Macht, Differenz: Motive und
Felder ethnologischen Forschens (Editors: Elfriede Hermann et al.),
Universitätsverlag Göttingen, ISBN 978-3940344809, pages 251–252; Quote: "Nagari script and Sanskrit
language in the inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was
already influencing Bali (Indonesia) by the 10th century CE." |
|
| 30. ^ Michael Witzel (2006), in Between the Empires : Society in India
300 BCE to 400 CE (Editor: Patrick
Olivelle), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195305326, pages 477–480 with
footnote 60; |
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| Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties
associated with it: Mahabhasya of Patanjali, F Kielhorn |
|
| 31. ^ Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838 [1] |
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| 32. ^ William Woodville Rockhill, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, p. 671, at Google Books, United States
National Museum, page 671 |
|
| 33. ^ David Quinter (2015), From Outcasts to Emperors: Shingon
Ritsu and the Mañjuśrī Cult in Medieval Japan, Brill, ISBN 978-9004293397, pages 63–65 with
discussion on Uṣṇīṣa
Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra |
|
| 34. ^ Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0195356663, pages 157–160 |
|
| 35. ^ Avenir S. Teselkin
(1972). Old Javanese (Kawi). Cornell University Press. pp. 9–14. |
|
| 36. ^ J. G. de Casparis
(1975). Indonesian Palaeography: A History
of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. AD 1500. BRILL Academic. pp. 35–43. ISBN 90-04-04172-9. |
|
| 37. ^ Mary S. Zurbuchen
(1976). Introduction to Old Javanese
Language and Literature: A Kawi Prose Anthology.
Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan.
pp. xi–xii. ISBN 978-0-89148-053-2. |
|
| 38. ^ Briggs, Lawrence Palmer
(1950). "The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty: Present Status of the
Question". Journal of the American Oriental Society. JSTOR. 70 (2): 79–81. doi:10.2307/595536. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 595536. |
|
| 39. ^ John Norman Miksic; Goh Geok
Yian (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 177–179, 314–322. ISBN 978-1-317-27904-4. |
|
| 40. ^ Salomon (2003:71) |
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| 41. ^ Jump up to:a b Salomon (2003:75) |
|
| 42. ^ Wikner (1996:13, 14) |
|
| 43. ^ Wikner (1996:6) |
|
| 44. ^ Snell (2000:44–45) |
|
| 45. ^ Snell (2000:64) |
|
| 46. ^ Snell (2000:45) |
|
| 47. ^ Snell (2000:46) |
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| 48. ^ Salomon (2003:77) |
|
| 49. ^ Verma (2003:501) |
|
| 50. ^ "Hindi Translation of
"dollar" | Collins English-Hindi Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 12
May 2019. |
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| 51. ^ Wikner (1996:73) |
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| 52. ^ Stella Sandahl (2000). A Hindi reference grammar.
Peeters. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-9042908802. |
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| 53. ^ Tej K. Bhatia (1987). A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. BRILL Academic. pp. 51–63, 77–94. ISBN 90-04-07924-6. |
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| 54. ^ Masica (1991:97) |
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| 55. ^ Pandey, Dipti; Mondal,
Tapabrata; Agrawal, S. S.; Bangalore, Srinivas (2013). "Development and
suitability of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR
system". 2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly
with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation
(O-COCOSDA/CASLRE): 3. doi:10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861. Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /ʒ/ फ़ /f/ |
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| 56. ^ Difference between ISO 15919
& IAST |
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| 57. ^ Saloman, Richard (2007) “Typological
Observations on the Indic Scripts” in The Indic Scripts: Paleographic and Linguistic Perspecticves D.K. Printworld Ltd., New Delhi. ISBN 812460406-1. p. 33. |
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| 58. ^ "The Unicode Standard,
chapter 9, South Asian Scripts I" (PDF). The Unicode Standard,
v. 6.0. Unicode, Inc. Retrieved 12 February 2012. |
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| 59. ^ Unicode Consortium, The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0,
Volume 1, ISBN 978-0201616330, Addison-Wesley,
pages 221–223 |
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| 60. ^ Transliteration from Hindi
Script to Meetei Mayek Archived 6 February 2016 at
the Wayback Machine Watham and Vimal (2013), IJETR, page 550 |
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| 61. ^ Michael Shapiro (2014), The Devanagari Writing System
in A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805088, page 26 |
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| 62. ^ Śiṣyalekha (MS
Add.1161), University of Cambridge Digital
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| 63. ^ Salotgi Inscription, The Indian Antiquary: A
Journal of Oriental Research, S.P. Pandit (1872),
pp.205–211; Quote: "The inscription of which a translation is given
below, is engraved on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height, 1 foot
2 inches thick, and 1 foot 9 inches broad. It is cut in Devanagari characters
on three of its four sides, and [...]" |
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| 64. ^ (Bahri 2004, p. (xiii))[full citation needed] |
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| 65. ^ Akshar Unicode South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 66. ^ Annapurna SIL Unicode, SIL International (2013) |
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| 67. ^ Arial Unicode South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 68. ^ Jump up to:a b CDAC-GIST Surekh Unicode South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 69. ^ CDAC-GIST Yogesh South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 70. ^ Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts[permanent dead
link]|date=July
2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Harvard University (2010);
see Chanda and Uttara ttf 2010 archive (Accessed: July 8, 2015) |
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| 71. ^ Gargi South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 72. ^ Gurumaa Unicode – a sans
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| 73. ^ Jaipur South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
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| 74. ^ Jana South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 75. ^ Kalimati South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 76. ^ Kanjirowa South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 77. ^ Mangal South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 78. ^ alib-ms. "Kokila font family - Typography". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved 19
September 2020. |
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| 79. ^ Raghu South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
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| 80. ^ Sanskrit Ashram South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 81. ^ Jump up to:a b Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts[permanent dead
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| 82. ^ Thyaka South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago
(2009) |
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| 83. ^ Devanagari font Archived 13 November 2014 at the Wayback
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| 84. ^ Daya Nand Sharma
(1972), Transliteration into Roman and
Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group,
Survey of India, 1972, ... With the passage of time there has emerged a
practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied
alphabets. Nevertheless, no single system of Romanisation has yet developed
... |
|
| 85. ^ United Nations Group of
Experts on Geographical Names, United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs (2007), Technical reference
manual for the standardisation of geographical names, United Nations Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-92-1-161500-5, ... ISO
15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in
international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually
used national system of romanisation in India ... |
|
| 86. ^ United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (1955), United
Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2, United Nations, 1955, ... In India the Hunterian system
is used, whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented
by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet ... |
|
| 87. ^ National Library (India)
(1960), Indian scientific & technical
publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography,
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India,
1960, ... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has
international acceptance, has been used ... |
|
| 88. ^ Jump up to:a b Devanagari IAST conventions Script Source (2009), SIL International, United States |
|
| 89. ^ Jump up to:a b Transliteration of
Devanāgarī Archived 6 June 2007 at
the Wayback Machine D. Wujastyk (1996) |
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| 90. ^ "LOC.gov". LOC.gov. Retrieved 13 June 2011. |
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| 91. ^ "0001.eps" (PDF). Retrieved 13 June 2011. |
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| 92. ^ "LOC.gov" (PDF). Retrieved 13 June 2011. |
|
| General sources[edit] |
|
| ·
Lambert, Hester Marjorie
(1953), Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of Sanskrit,
Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege (Oxford
University Press). |
|
| ·
Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. |
|
| ·
Snell, Rupert (2000), Teach Yourself
Beginner's Hindi Script, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 978-0-07-141984-0. |
|
| ·
Salomon, Richard (2003), "Writing Systems of
the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh
(eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 67–103, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5. |
|
| ·
Verma, Sheela (2003), "Magahi", in
Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages,
Routledge, pp. 498–514, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5. |
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